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Deir el-Medina (), or Dayr al-Madīnah, is an workmen's village which was home to the artisans who worked on the tombs in the Valley of the Kings during the 18th to 20th Dynasties of the New Kingdom of Egypt (ca. 1550–1080 BC).Oakes, p. 110 The settlement's ancient name was ("Place of Truth"), and the workmen who lived there were called "Servants in the Place of Truth".Lesko, p. 7 During the Christian era, the temple of Hathor was converted into a Monastery of Saint Isidorus the Martyr () from which the Egyptian Arabic name Deir el-Medina ("Monastery of the City") is derived.Bierbrier, p. 125
At the time when the world's press was concentrating on Howard Carter's discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun in 1922, a team led by Bernard Bruyère began to excavate the site."Pharaoh's Workers: How the Israelites Lived in Egypt", Leonard and Barbara Lesko, Biblical Archaeological Review, Jan/Feb 1999 This work has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world that spans almost four hundred years. There is no comparable site in which the organisation, social interactions, working and living conditions of a community can be studied in such detail.Cambridge Ancient History, p. 380
The site is located on the west bank of the Nile, across the river from modern-day Luxor.Lesko p. 2 The village is laid out in a small natural amphitheatre, within easy walking distance of the Valley of the Kings to the north, funerary temples to the east and south-east, with the Valley of the Queens to the west.Cambridge Ancient History, p. 379 The village may have been built apart from the wider population in order to preserve secrecy in view of sensitive nature of the work carried out in the tombs."Archaeologica: the world's most significant sites and cultural treasures", Aedeen Cremin, p. 91, Frances Lincoln, 2007, It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site." Archaeologica: the world's most significant sites and cultural treasures", Aedeen Cremin, p. 384, Frances Lincoln, 2007,
Around five thousand ostraca of assorted works of commerce and literature were found in a well close to the village." Archaeologica: the world's most significant sites and cultural treasures", Aedeen Cremin, p. 91, Frances Lincoln, 2007, Jaroslav Černý, who was part of Bruyère's team, went on to study the village for almost fifty years until his death in 1970 and was able to name and describe the lives of many of the inhabitants."Life of the ancient Egyptians, Eugen Strouhal, Evžen Strouhal, Werner Forman, Editorial Galaxia, p. 187, 1992, The peak overlooking the village was renamed "Mont Cernabru" in recognition of Černý and Bruyère's work on the village.Romer, p. 209
Due to its location, the village is not thought to have provided a pleasant environment. The walled village reflects the shape of the narrow valley in which it's situated, with the barren surrounding hillsides reflecting the desert sun and the hill of Qurnet Murai cutting off the north breeze, as well as any view of the verdant river valley.Lesko, p. 2 The village was abandoned c. 1110–1080 BC during the reign of Ramesses XI (whose tomb was the last of the royal tombs built in the Valley of the Kings) due to increasing threats from tomb robbery, Libyan raids and the instability of civil war.Bierbrier pp. 119, 120 The Ptolemids later built a temple to Hathor on the site of an ancient shrine dedicated to her.McDowell p. 4
As the main well was thirty minutes walk from the village, carriers worked to keep the village regularly supplied with water. When working on the tombs, the artisans stayed overnight in a camp overlooking the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut (c. 1479–1458 BC) that is still visible today. Surviving records indicate that the workers had cooked meals delivered to them from the village.
Based on analysis of income and prices, the workmen of the village would, in modern terms, be considered middle class. As salaried state employees they were paid in rations at up to three times the rate of a field hand, but unofficial second jobs were also widely practiced.Lesko, p. 12 At great festivals such as the heb sed the workmen were issued with extra supplies of food and drink to allow a stylish celebration.Wilson (1997), pp. 118, 222
The working week was eight days followed by two days holiday, though the six days off a month could be supplemented frequently due to illness, family reasons and, as recorded by the scribe of the tomb, arguing with one's wife or having a hangover.Oakes, p. 111 Including the days given over to festivals, over one-third of the year was time-off for the villagers during the reign of Merneptah (c. 1213–1203 BC).Romer, p. 48
During their days off the workmen could work on their own tombs, and since they were amongst the best craftsmen in Ancient Egypt who excavated and decorated royal tombs, their own tombs are considered to be some of the most beautiful on the west bank.
A large proportion of the community, including women, could at least read and possibly write.Wilson (1997), p. 72
The jobs of the workers would have been considered desirable and prized positions, with the posts being inheritable.Lesko, p. 22
The examples of love songs recovered show how friendship between the sexes was practised, as was social drinking by both men and women.Lesko p. 34 Egyptian marriages amongst commoners were monogamous but little is known about the marriage or wedding arrangements from surviving records.Lesko p. 35 It was not unusual for couples to have six or seven children, with some recorded as having ten.Meskell, p. 74
Separation, divorce and remarriage occurred. Merymaat is recorded as wanting a divorce on account of his mother in-law's behaviour. Female slaves could become surrogate mothers in cases where the wife was infertile and in doing so raise their status and procure their freedom.Meskell, pp, 95–98
The community could move freely in and out of the walled village but for security reasons the only outsiders allowed to enter the site were those with good work-related reasons.
The people of Deir el-Medina often consulted with oracles about many aspects of their lives including justice. Questions could be put in writing or orally before the image of the god when carried by priests upon a litter. A positive response could have been indicated by a downward dip and a negative response by a withdrawal of the litter.Donald B. Redford (Editor), " Oxford Guide to Egyptian Mythology", p. 80, Berkley Reference, 2003, When a matter of justice came up that wasn't resolved by a tribunal, the god's statue could be carried to the accused and asked "Is it he who stole my goods?" and, if the statue nodded, the accused would be considered guilty. However, at times, the accused would deny guilt and demand to see another oracle or, in at least one case when that failed, he asked to see a third. When guilt was determined, a judgement would be passed and the accused would have to make reparations and receive punishment. The Egyptians also believed the oracle could bring disease or blindness to people as punishment or miracle cures as rewards.Romer, pp. 100–115, 178
Health texts from Deir el-Medina also differed in their circulation. Magical spells and remedies were widely distributed among the workmen; there are even several cases of spells being sent from one worker to another, with no "trained" intermediary.Lesko, p. 68McDowell, p. 106 Written medical texts appear to have been much rarer, however, with only a handful of ostraca containing prescriptions, indicating that the trained physician mixed the more complicated remedies himself. There are also several documents that show the writer sending for medical ingredients, but it is unknown whether these were sent according to a physician's prescription, or to fulfill a home remedy.McDowell, p. 57
The community had between sixteen and eighteen chapels, with the larger ones dedicated to Hathor, Ptah and Ramesses II. The workmen seem to have honoured Ptah and Resheph, the scribes Thoth and Seshat, as patron deities of their particular activity. Women had particular devotion towards Hathor, Taweret, and Bes in pregnancy, turning to Renenutet and Meretseger for food and safety.Lesko p. 90 Meretseger ("She Who Loves Silence") was perhaps locally at least as important as Osiris, the great god of the dead.
The villagers held Amenhotep I (c. 1526–1506 BC) and his mother, Queen Ahmose-Nefertari, in high regard over many generations, possibly as divinized patrons of the community.Lesko, pp. 7, 111 When Amenhotep died he became the centre of a village funerary cult, as "Amenhotep of the Town". When the Queen died, she also was deified and became "Mistress of the Sky" and "Lady of the West".Tyldesley (1996), p. 62 Every year the villagers celebrated the Festival of Amenhotep I, where the elders acted as priests in the ceremonies that paid honour to their own local gods who were not worshipped anywhere else in Egypt.Wilson, p. 118
Prayers were made and dedicated to a particular deity as votive offerings, similar in style to the Penitential Psalms in the Tanakh, which express remorse and thanksgiving for mercy.Donald B. Redford (Editor), " Oxford Guide to Egyptian Mythology", p. 313, Berkley Reference, 2003, record sorrow for human error and humbly invoke a god for forgiveness and mercy. In one instance Meretseger is petitioned to bring relief to one in pain. She answer the prayer by bringing "sweet breezes". Egyptian Myths, George Hart, p. 46, University of Texas Press, 1990, On another stele, a workman writes, "I was a man who swore falsely by Ptah, Lord of Truth, and he caused me to see darkness by day. Now I will declaim his might to both the ignorant and the knowledgeable." Amun was considered a special patron of the poor and one who was merciful to the penitent. A stelae records:
Dream interpretation was very common.John Romer, " Testament", p. 50, Guild Publishing, 1988 A book of dreams was found in Scribe Kenhirkhopeshef's library that was old even in his time. This book was used to interpret various types of dreams. These interpretations lacked precision and similar dreams often had different meanings. In many cases the interpretation was the opposite of what the dream depicted, for example a happy dream often signified sadness, a dream of plenty often signified scarceness etc.
Examples of how the dreams are interpreted include the following:
Also in the temple to Hathor, a few of the craftsmen built stelae in honour of her. One such stela is the stele of Nefersenut, in which he and one of his son's kneeling and giving offerings to her in human form."Ancient Egypt", Loarna Oakes and Lucia Gahlin, pp. 176–177, Anness Publishing, 2006
In about the 25th year of the reign of Ramesses III (c. 1170 BC) the tomb laborers were so exasperated by delays in supplies that they threw down their tools and walked off the job in what may have been the first sit-down strike action in recorded history. They wrote a letter to the vizier complaining about lack of wheat rations. Village leaders attempted to reason with them but they refused to return to work until their grievances were addressed. They responded to the elders with "great oaths". "We are hungry", the crews claimed; "eighteen days have passed this month" and they still had not received their rations. They were forced to buy their own wheat. They told the leaders to send to the pharaoh or vizier to address their concerns. After the authorities had heard their complaints they addressed them and the workers went back to work the next day. Several strikes followed. After one of them, when the strike leader asked the workers to follow him they told him they had had enough and returned to work. This was not the last strike but they soon restored the regular wheat supplies and the strikes came to an end for the remaining years of Ramesses III. However, since the chiefs supported the authorities the workers no longer trusted them and chose their own representatives.Romer, pp. 116–125 Further complaints by the artisans are recorded forty and fifty years after the initial dispute, during the reigns of Ramesses IX and Ramesses X." The Burden of Egypt", John A. Wilson, p. 278, University of Chicago Press, 1951, 4th imp 1963
The Abbott Papyrus reports on one occasion, when some officials were looking for a scapegoat, they obtained a confession from a repeat offender after torturing him. However the Vizier was suspicious at how easily the suspect had been produced, so the Vizier asked the suspect to lead them to the tomb that he had robbed. He led them to an unfinished tomb that had never been used and claimed that it was the tomb of Isis. When they retrieved the plunder, they didn't return it to the tombs; instead, they added it to the treasury.Romer, pp. 145–210Time Life (1992) pp. 134–142
Deir el-Medina is also mentioned in some of the later books of the Amelia Peabody series by Barbara Mertz (writing as Elizabeth Peters). The village is the setting for some scenes, and late in the series the fictional Egyptologist Radcliffe Emerson is credited with excavations and documentation of the site.
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